Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Modeling and Designing Physical Barriers for the Safety of Hazardous Material Storage Tanks with a Civil Defense Approach Modeling and Designing Physical Barriers for the Safety of Hazardous Material Storage Tanks with a Civil Defense Approach 1 18 210448 10.47176/pd.2026.1496 FA HAMED ASGHARI Master's degree in crisis management, non-operating engineering and defense university complex, Malik Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. 0009-0001-3707-4834 MAHDI MODIRI Professor, Malik Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0003-2739-9421 Journal Article 2024 12 12 Hazardous material storage and containment equipment in industries are constantly exposed to serious threats due to risks from intentional and malicious attacks. This necessitates serious attention and actions regarding safety and security in these facilities. This research focuses on the assessment and modeling of safety distances for pressurized storage equipment against shooting threats. In this context, threats from small arms were first identified, and various bullets were categorized based on their physical and mechanical characteristics. Subsequently, using bullet penetration models, the projectile's critical velocity and maximum stand-off distance were calculated. The results indicate that safe distances depend on the type of weapon and the characteristics of the target, with stand-off distances averaging less than 11 meters for handguns and varying up to 1135 meters for rifle projectiles. Additionally, a Monte Carlo analysis examined the impact of the shooter's offset angle on safety distances, revealing that this effect is particularly significant when shooting at small targets. These findings serve as a basis for designing protective barriers and security measures in hazardous material storage facilities. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the importance of employing civil defense approaches and training personnel to enhance the resilience and safety of these facilities. Hazardous material storage and containment equipment in industries are constantly exposed to serious threats due to risks from intentional and malicious attacks. This necessitates serious attention and actions regarding safety and security in these facilities. This research focuses on the assessment and modeling of safety distances for pressurized storage equipment against shooting threats. In this context, threats from small arms were first identified, and various bullets were categorized based on their physical and mechanical characteristics. Subsequently, using bullet penetration models, the projectile's critical velocity and maximum stand-off distance were calculated. The results indicate that safe distances depend on the type of weapon and the characteristics of the target, with stand-off distances averaging less than 11 meters for handguns and varying up to 1135 meters for rifle projectiles. Additionally, a Monte Carlo analysis examined the impact of the shooter's offset angle on safety distances, revealing that this effect is particularly significant when shooting at small targets. These findings serve as a basis for designing protective barriers and security measures in hazardous material storage facilities. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the importance of employing civil defense approaches and training personnel to enhance the resilience and safety of these facilities.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210448_a9693a2023a790d02ea6dc5a817d0244.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Estimate the Burned Area Caused by Forest Fire with an Approach Based on Machine Learning Estimate the Burned Area Caused by Forest Fire with an Approach Based on Machine Learning 19 35 210196 10.47176/pd.2026.1526 FA Ali Zhaleh Karimi Master’s Student in artificial intelligence and robotics, Faculty of artificial intelligence and cognitive sciences, Imam Hossein Comprehensive University, Tehran, Iran 0009-0008-1115-6365 Mohammad Ali Javadzade Assistant Professor, Faculty of artificial intelligence and cognitive sciences, Imam Hossein Comprehensive University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-0723-3769 Journal Article 2025 03 13 Forest fires are a serious threat to natural resources and critical infrastructure, causing extensive economic, environmental, and security damages annually. This research aims to strengthen passive defense and crisis management systems by presenting an innovative artificial intelligence-based approach for predicting burned area extent when facing forest fires. In this research, the XGBRegressor algorithm within machine learning framework was used to accurately predict the area damaged by fire using meteorological, geographical, and temporal data. The model achieves RMSE and MAE evaluation metrics of 61.602 and 12.273 respectively, enabling resource and equipment planning for fire suppression. The research findings demonstrate that through spatial-temporal fire analysis, critical points and high-risk periods can be identified. Additionally, the potential fire area can be estimated with minimal error, allowing targeted allocation of defensive resources. This approach, in line with intelligent territorial planning and proactive crisis management, enhances ability to protect critical infrastructures adjacent to forest areas. Moreover, this model can serve as a complement to an early warning system within the framework of passive defense and environmental resilience, playing a crucial role in reducing damages and preserving national resources. Although this study focuses on data from outside Iran, the presented research has the potential for localization to Iranian forests and can be used as a strategic tool in the country's passive defense. Forest fires are a serious threat to natural resources and critical infrastructure, causing extensive economic, environmental, and security damages annually. This research aims to strengthen passive defense and crisis management systems by presenting an innovative artificial intelligence-based approach for predicting burned area extent when facing forest fires. In this research, the XGBRegressor algorithm within machine learning framework was used to accurately predict the area damaged by fire using meteorological, geographical, and temporal data. The model achieves RMSE and MAE evaluation metrics of 61.602 and 12.273 respectively, enabling resource and equipment planning for fire suppression. The research findings demonstrate that through spatial-temporal fire analysis, critical points and high-risk periods can be identified. Additionally, the potential fire area can be estimated with minimal error, allowing targeted allocation of defensive resources. This approach, in line with intelligent territorial planning and proactive crisis management, enhances ability to protect critical infrastructures adjacent to forest areas. Moreover, this model can serve as a complement to an early warning system within the framework of passive defense and environmental resilience, playing a crucial role in reducing damages and preserving national resources. Although this study focuses on data from outside Iran, the presented research has the potential for localization to Iranian forests and can be used as a strategic tool in the country's passive defense.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210196_b9cf343ac5bfead1f0ef00ae04866ffc.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Radioactive Contamination Management in Pasture and Forest Ecosystems with Nuclear Defense Approach Radioactive Contamination Management in Pasture and Forest Ecosystems with Nuclear Defense Approach 37 52 210480 10.47176/PD.2026.1545 FA Morteza Kordi Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran. 0000-0003-2184-0861 Mojtaba Saadati Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Imam Hossein (AS) University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0001-7199-3167 Journal Article 2025 06 05 This study was conducted to investigate and identify methods and defensive strategies for removing contamination from radioactive materials after a nuclear accident in forest ecosystems. For this purpose, published results of experimental methods on how to remove contamination from the forest environment after various nuclear accidents that occurred around the world, especially the Chernobyl accident (1986), were studied. It was found that with the deposition of radioactive materials in the forest environment in a short period of time, within a few months, the concentration of contamination in forest food products such as mushrooms and berries increases sharply, and forest animals also become contaminated by eating them. One of the ways in which radioactive contamination is transferred from the forest ecosystem to the human food chain is through the consumption of forest food or hunting animals from contaminated forests. After one year, soil becomes the main source of radionuclide contamination in the forest. Also, by removing contaminated wood from the forest and using it, the routes of transmission of contamination to people who are not normally directly exposed to radioactive radiation in the forest increase. There are various countermeasures to eliminate or reduce radioactive contamination through the forest environment. However, only those measures that have a high feasibility and are effective in eliminating or reducing contamination should be used to eliminate or reduce contamination. It seems that the rate of transmission of radioactive contamination to humans through forest ecosystems can be minimized by implementing measures such as; limiting access to forests, preventing forest fires, chemically modifying forest soil, processing raw forest products, changing hunting times in the forest, and avoiding collecting forest food products. This study was conducted to investigate and identify methods and defensive strategies for removing contamination from radioactive materials after a nuclear accident in forest ecosystems. For this purpose, published results of experimental methods on how to remove contamination from the forest environment after various nuclear accidents that occurred around the world, especially the Chernobyl accident (1986), were studied. It was found that with the deposition of radioactive materials in the forest environment in a short period of time, within a few months, the concentration of contamination in forest food products such as mushrooms and berries increases sharply, and forest animals also become contaminated by eating them. One of the ways in which radioactive contamination is transferred from the forest ecosystem to the human food chain is through the consumption of forest food or hunting animals from contaminated forests. After one year, soil becomes the main source of radionuclide contamination in the forest. Also, by removing contaminated wood from the forest and using it, the routes of transmission of contamination to people who are not normally directly exposed to radioactive radiation in the forest increase. There are various countermeasures to eliminate or reduce radioactive contamination through the forest environment. However, only those measures that have a high feasibility and are effective in eliminating or reducing contamination should be used to eliminate or reduce contamination. It seems that the rate of transmission of radioactive contamination to humans through forest ecosystems can be minimized by implementing measures such as; limiting access to forests, preventing forest fires, chemically modifying forest soil, processing raw forest products, changing hunting times in the forest, and avoiding collecting forest food products.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210480_082600018cadfb0d452374f10564d4fd.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Explaining the Role of Light in Creating Spatial Desirability of Metro Stations with a Safety and Security Approach Explaining the Role of Light in Creating Spatial Desirability of Metro Stations with a Safety and Security Approach 53 71 210481 10.47176/pd.2026.1546 FA S. A. Mahdinia PhD student, Department of Industrial Engineering, NT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Seyed Javad Hashemi Fesharaki Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Imam Hussein University (peace be upon him)، Tehran, Iran Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Seraj Professor, Department of Architecture, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran. S. Piri Assistant Professor, Department of Industrial Engineering, NT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Journal Article 2025 06 09 This article examines the role of light in enhancing the spatial desirability of metro stations, focusing on safety and security. Given the underground and often dark nature of metro stations, proper lighting is essential not only for proper orientation and visibility, but also significantly affects the sense of security and comfort of users. The purpose of this research is to explain the place and role of light in the spatial desirability of underground metro stations and to understand the factors affecting the user experience and creating a safe and secure space for passengers; paying attention to passive defense considerations in these spaces will be protective and will serve as one of the components of power superiority and security in times of crisis. The research method in this study is descriptive-analytical and the data collection method is through completing a questionnaire. After identifying the indicators using library studies and referring to reliable sources, the opinions of expert experts are used to evaluate these indicators using a questionnaire tool in the context of the test content in question. By explaining the test objectives to them and providing them with operational definitions related to the content of the questions, they are asked to classify each of the questions. In the next step, questionnaire number two was distributed in 10 underground stations of the Tehran Metro (Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), Darwaze Shemiran, Imam Khomeini (may Allah be pleased with him), Shahid Navab Safavi, Vali Asr Square (peace be upon him), Shahr Theater, Tohid, Darwaze Dolat, Shohada Square, and Shadman); in order to examine the role and effect of each of the light quality components in improving safety and security indicators and to determine their status. SPSS software was used to analyze the questionnaire. The results show that among the 19 spatial desirability indicators, the following indicators: safety and security along with readability, accessibility and communication with a CVR of 0.68 have the greatest impact on creating spatial desirability in underground metro stations. Therefore, appropriate and planned lighting, taking into account the psychological and behavioral aspects of users, can effectively increase the level of safety and security in metro stations and ultimately help improve the overall passenger experience. This article examines the role of light in enhancing the spatial desirability of metro stations, focusing on safety and security. Given the underground and often dark nature of metro stations, proper lighting is essential not only for proper orientation and visibility, but also significantly affects the sense of security and comfort of users. The purpose of this research is to explain the place and role of light in the spatial desirability of underground metro stations and to understand the factors affecting the user experience and creating a safe and secure space for passengers; paying attention to passive defense considerations in these spaces will be protective and will serve as one of the components of power superiority and security in times of crisis. The research method in this study is descriptive-analytical and the data collection method is through completing a questionnaire. After identifying the indicators using library studies and referring to reliable sources, the opinions of expert experts are used to evaluate these indicators using a questionnaire tool in the context of the test content in question. By explaining the test objectives to them and providing them with operational definitions related to the content of the questions, they are asked to classify each of the questions. In the next step, questionnaire number two was distributed in 10 underground stations of the Tehran Metro (Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), Darwaze Shemiran, Imam Khomeini (may Allah be pleased with him), Shahid Navab Safavi, Vali Asr Square (peace be upon him), Shahr Theater, Tohid, Darwaze Dolat, Shohada Square, and Shadman); in order to examine the role and effect of each of the light quality components in improving safety and security indicators and to determine their status. SPSS software was used to analyze the questionnaire. The results show that among the 19 spatial desirability indicators, the following indicators: safety and security along with readability, accessibility and communication with a CVR of 0.68 have the greatest impact on creating spatial desirability in underground metro stations. Therefore, appropriate and planned lighting, taking into account the psychological and behavioral aspects of users, can effectively increase the level of safety and security in metro stations and ultimately help improve the overall passenger experience.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210481_1e51777e903ff360ad9d906e7ed29773.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Analysis of Factors Affecting Economic Crisis Management in Families (With Emphasis on Resistance Identity) Analysis of Factors Affecting Economic Crisis Management in Families (With Emphasis on Resistance Identity) 73 89 210542 10.47176/pd.2026.1558 FA Vahid Arshadi Assistant Professor, Islamic Economics Research Group, Research Institute for Islamic Studies in Humanities, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. 0000-0002-6727-6023 SEYED HAMED HOKMABADI PhD Candidate in Economics, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. Journal Article 2025 07 25 This study was designed to analyze the factors affecting the management of economic crises and to examine the role of “resistance identity” in explaining and enhancing the capabilities of households living in Mashhad in confronting such crises. In terms of methodology, the present study is a quantitative research project with a cross-sectional correlational design, conducted using random sampling among 249 heads of households residing in Mashhad. The data were collected through a researcher-made questionnaire. For data analysis, exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify the underlying dimensions of resistance identity, followed by multiple regression analysis to assess the impact of these factors on the management of economic crises. The findings of this study indicated that the dimensions of resistance identity jointly explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. The components of “economic independence” (with an emphasis on self-reliance and support for domestic production) and “creativity” (as the ability to provide innovative solutions) had the strongest positive and significant effects. In addition, “emotional resilience” (the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks), as one of the components of the emotional-psychological dimension, played a significant supportive role. In contrast, factors such as “unwillingness to engage in teamwork,” “materialism,” “speculative behaviors,” and “hasty decision-making” had significant negative effects on crisis management. Therefore, economic and social policymaking especially within the framework of economic defense should, in addition to structural interventions, focus on strengthening self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and the psychological resilience of households. The findings indicate that the dimensions of resistance identity collectively explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. Among these dimensions, economic independence (emphasizing self-reliance and support for domestic production) and creativity (as the ability to generate innovative solutions) exhibited the strongest positive and statistically significant effects. In addition, emotional resilience—defined as the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks—played a significant supportive role as a component of the emotional–psychological dimension. Conversely, factors such as reluctance toward collective action, materialism, speculative behaviors, and impulsive decision-making showed significant negative effects on economic crisis management. Accordingly, economic and social policies—particularly within the framework of economic passive defense—should, alongside structural interventions, place greater emphasis on strengthening household self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and psychological resilience This study was designed to analyze the factors affecting the management of economic crises and to examine the role of “resistance identity” in explaining and enhancing the capabilities of households living in Mashhad in confronting such crises. In terms of methodology, the present study is a quantitative research project with a cross-sectional correlational design, conducted using random sampling among 249 heads of households residing in Mashhad. The data were collected through a researcher-made questionnaire. For data analysis, exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify the underlying dimensions of resistance identity, followed by multiple regression analysis to assess the impact of these factors on the management of economic crises. The findings of this study indicated that the dimensions of resistance identity jointly explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. The components of “economic independence” (with an emphasis on self-reliance and support for domestic production) and “creativity” (as the ability to provide innovative solutions) had the strongest positive and significant effects. In addition, “emotional resilience” (the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks), as one of the components of the emotional-psychological dimension, played a significant supportive role. In contrast, factors such as “unwillingness to engage in teamwork,” “materialism,” “speculative behaviors,” and “hasty decision-making” had significant negative effects on crisis management. Therefore, economic and social policymaking especially within the framework of economic defense should, in addition to structural interventions, focus on strengthening self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and the psychological resilience of households. The findings indicate that the dimensions of resistance identity collectively explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. Among these dimensions, economic independence (emphasizing self-reliance and support for domestic production) and creativity (as the ability to generate innovative solutions) exhibited the strongest positive and statistically significant effects. In addition, emotional resilience—defined as the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks—played a significant supportive role as a component of the emotional–psychological dimension. Conversely, factors such as reluctance toward collective action, materialism, speculative behaviors, and impulsive decision-making showed significant negative effects on economic crisis management. Accordingly, economic and social policies—particularly within the framework of economic passive defense—should, alongside structural interventions, place greater emphasis on strengthening household self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and psychological resilience

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210542_706eaa3c94d66704de70d0bea0206b02.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Numerical Simulation and Experimental Validation of Surface Water Evaporation Reduction Using Novel Coating Fluids Numerical Simulation and Experimental Validation of Surface Water Evaporation Reduction Using Novel Coating Fluids 91 101 210485 10.47176/pd.2026.1561 FA Mohammad Hassanzadeh M.Sc. in Chemical Engineering, Imam Hossein Comprehensive University, Tehran, Iran 0009-0009-8782-9471 Saeed Esfandeh Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jundi-Shapur University of Technology, Dezful, Iran. Zahra Kamyab Ph.D. in Agricultural Engineering,University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Mohammad Hassan Kamyab Ph. D. in Mechanical Engineering, Imam Hossein Comprehensive University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0002-8552-5767 Journal Article 2025 08 01 Given the decline in water resources, the control and reduction of evaporation from free water surfaces in reservoirs and dams is of considerable importance. One effective method for achieving this goal is the application of anti-evaporation surface-covering fluids. In this study, the effect of the anti-evaporation fluid hexadecanol on water evaporation was investigated. In the experimental section, the reduction of surface water evaporation over a 16-day period was assessed using a Class A pan. During this period, parameters influencing evaporation namely air flow velocity, temperature, and relative humidity were measured three times per day. In the numerical section, the simulation was carried out using the finite-volume method by solving th continuity and momentum equations under the assumption of multiphase flow. The multiphase model was implemented via the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, considering four phases: water, air, water vapor, and the anti-evaporation fluid. Simulations were performed for two conditions—with and without the anti-evaporation fluid applied to the water surface—using an initial water depth of 2. 4 cm. Following mesh-independence analysis and validation of the model with the experimental data, the unsteady simulation results were examined over a 24-minute interval. The findings indicated that the use of the covering fluid can reduce evaporation by approximately 76%. Furthermore, the discrepancy between the simulation predictions and the experimental measurements was approximately 13%, which is regarded as acceptable. Given the decline in water resources, the control and reduction of evaporation from free water surfaces in reservoirs and dams is of considerable importance. One effective method for achieving this goal is the application of anti-evaporation surface-covering fluids. In this study, the effect of the anti-evaporation fluid hexadecanol on water evaporation was investigated. In the experimental section, the reduction of surface water evaporation over a 16-day period was assessed using a Class A pan. During this period, parameters influencing evaporation namely air flow velocity, temperature, and relative humidity were measured three times per day. In the numerical section, the simulation was carried out using the finite-volume method by solving th continuity and momentum equations under the assumption of multiphase flow. The multiphase model was implemented via the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, considering four phases: water, air, water vapor, and the anti-evaporation fluid. Simulations were performed for two conditions—with and without the anti-evaporation fluid applied to the water surface—using an initial water depth of 2. 4 cm. Following mesh-independence analysis and validation of the model with the experimental data, the unsteady simulation results were examined over a 24-minute interval. The findings indicated that the use of the covering fluid can reduce evaporation by approximately 76%. Furthermore, the discrepancy between the simulation predictions and the experimental measurements was approximately 13%, which is regarded as acceptable.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210485_b98de72e0be7c20d0a17c0b356beb66e.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Explaining the Indicators for Improving the Resilience of Residential Areas Against Man-Made Threats (Case Study: Evin Neighborhood) Explaining the Indicators for Improving the Resilience of Residential Areas Against Man-Made Threats (Case Study: Evin Neighborhood) 103 122 210447 10.47176/pd.2026.1562 FA Ali Bitarafan PhD student, Department of Architectural, SR.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 0009-0004-4922-8628 Mahtiam Shahbazi Assistant Professor, Department of Architectural, SR.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0002-4298-6635 Farah Habib Professor, Department of Architectural, SR.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0001-8052-6229 Journal Article 2025 08 08 Throughout human history, housing has consistently been a fundamental need. Today, residential zones play a decisive role in shaping cities; however, they face considerable deficiencies across multiple resilience indicators. Consequently, natural and human-made hazards constitute a core challenge to achieving safety and sustainable security in residential areas. This applied study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach, using documentary research and questionnaires for data collection. First, intentional human-made threats were identified and evaluated with the MARCOS method. Second, indicators for enhancing the resilience of residential zones against these threats were specified and assessed using the IHWP method. Third, the results of the second stage were applied to the case study of the Evin neighborhood. Findings from stage one indicate that, among drone and missile attacks, mortar attacks, terrorist attacks, riots/unrest, arson, chemical attacks, and biological attacks, drone and missile attacks have the highest likelihood of occurrence. Stage-two results show that, in descending order, the criteria of building and structure, land use, urban spatial structure, architecture, supporting urban utilities and facilities, income, employment, population, and social cohesion exert the greatest influence on enhancing residential resilience. In stage three, the resilience of Evin’s residential zones to drone and missile attacks was estimated at 5.73%, signaling a highly unfavorable condition and multiple challenges across the neighborhood’s physical, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions. Throughout human history, housing has consistently been a fundamental need. Today, residential zones play a decisive role in shaping cities; however, they face considerable deficiencies across multiple resilience indicators. Consequently, natural and human-made hazards constitute a core challenge to achieving safety and sustainable security in residential areas. This applied study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach, using documentary research and questionnaires for data collection. First, intentional human-made threats were identified and evaluated with the MARCOS method. Second, indicators for enhancing the resilience of residential zones against these threats were specified and assessed using the IHWP method. Third, the results of the second stage were applied to the case study of the Evin neighborhood. Findings from stage one indicate that, among drone and missile attacks, mortar attacks, terrorist attacks, riots/unrest, arson, chemical attacks, and biological attacks, drone and missile attacks have the highest likelihood of occurrence. Stage-two results show that, in descending order, the criteria of building and structure, land use, urban spatial structure, architecture, supporting urban utilities and facilities, income, employment, population, and social cohesion exert the greatest influence on enhancing residential resilience. In stage three, the resilience of Evin’s residential zones to drone and missile attacks was estimated at 5.73%, signaling a highly unfavorable condition and multiple challenges across the neighborhood’s physical, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210447_67166cdbd369009c5c309e33b6333853.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Analysis of Design Components for Safe Residential Complexes with a Passive Defense Approach (A Case Study of Tabriz ) Analysis of Design Components for Safe Residential Complexes with a Passive Defense Approach (A Case Study of Tabriz ) 123 140 210483 10.47176/pd.2026.1572 FA Seyede Fateme Lari Master's student, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran. 0009-0003-3633-765X Hamed Beyti Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0001-9717-7395 Bita Shafaei Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0002-9129-5769 Journal Article 2025 09 05 Security in residential complexes is one of the key dimensions for enhancing the quality of life and reducing vulnerability to natural and human-made threats. The passive defense approach, as a non-military strategy, can play a significant role in strengthening both the physical and perceptual–spatial safety of housing environments. This study aimed to identify and evaluate the components and subcomponents of safe residential complex design based on the principles of passive defense in the city of Tabriz, considering its specific climatic and physical characteristics.Tabriz, due to its unique geopolitical position in the northwest of Iran, history of frequent earthquakes, high population density, concentration of deteriorated urban fabrics, and its industrial significance, is among the cities where analyzing passive defense has particular importance. The research is applied–descriptive in nature and was conducted in two stages. First, the theoretical foundations were reviewed through library studies, and a conceptual model comprising ten main components and forty-one subcomponents was developed. Then, to evaluate the model, a researcher-made questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale was designed and distributed among 60 housing experts, including architects and civil engineers. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.92. Data were analyzed using SPSS software through means comparison, independent t-test, and one-way ANOVA to examine differences among groups based on gender, work experience, and education level. The results indicated that the component “mobility facilities and emergency evacuation” had the highest importance from experts’ viewpoints (mean = 4.525), while “sense of place attachment” had the lowest acceptance (mean = 3.42). At the subcomponent level, 33 indicators were confirmed and 8 were rejected. Limited differences among groups were observed, mainly related to perceptual and psychological dimensions.Overall, the findings highlight that designing safe residential complexes requires simultaneous attention to both physical and perceptual dimensions of security. Moreover, the observed differences among experts emphasize the need for comprehensive and multidimensional approaches in policymaking and design to encompass the diverse perspectives and needs of users. Security in residential complexes is one of the key dimensions for enhancing the quality of life and reducing vulnerability to natural and human-made threats. The passive defense approach, as a non-military strategy, can play a significant role in strengthening both the physical and perceptual–spatial safety of housing environments. This study aimed to identify and evaluate the components and subcomponents of safe residential complex design based on the principles of passive defense in the city of Tabriz, considering its specific climatic and physical characteristics.Tabriz, due to its unique geopolitical position in the northwest of Iran, history of frequent earthquakes, high population density, concentration of deteriorated urban fabrics, and its industrial significance, is among the cities where analyzing passive defense has particular importance. The research is applied–descriptive in nature and was conducted in two stages. First, the theoretical foundations were reviewed through library studies, and a conceptual model comprising ten main components and forty-one subcomponents was developed. Then, to evaluate the model, a researcher-made questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale was designed and distributed among 60 housing experts, including architects and civil engineers. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.92. Data were analyzed using SPSS software through means comparison, independent t-test, and one-way ANOVA to examine differences among groups based on gender, work experience, and education level. The results indicated that the component “mobility facilities and emergency evacuation” had the highest importance from experts’ viewpoints (mean = 4.525), while “sense of place attachment” had the lowest acceptance (mean = 3.42). At the subcomponent level, 33 indicators were confirmed and 8 were rejected. Limited differences among groups were observed, mainly related to perceptual and psychological dimensions.Overall, the findings highlight that designing safe residential complexes requires simultaneous attention to both physical and perceptual dimensions of security. Moreover, the observed differences among experts emphasize the need for comprehensive and multidimensional approaches in policymaking and design to encompass the diverse perspectives and needs of users.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210483_568415018e3fdef8750dbc343bf6bc85.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Evaluation of Considerations of Indicators and Principles of Passive Defense in Urban Water Infrastructures of Ilam Evaluation of Considerations of Indicators and Principles of Passive Defense in Urban Water Infrastructures of Ilam 141 162 210484 10.47176/pd.2026.1575 FA Saeed Maleki Professor, Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Shahid chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran. 0000-0001-6884-4259 Hoshang Moradi Postdoctoral Researcher in Geography and Urban Planning, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran. 0000-0001-8073-1249 Journal Article 2025 09 14 The concentration and density of population, capital, centers, and various facilities in cities, while having various economic, social, political, and environmental effects and consequences, has turned them into strategic targets in war and terrorist military attacks from a defense and security perspective. The experience of past wars confirms that vital centers and facilities in cities, especially vital water infrastructure, are among the primary targets that are attacked; however, passive defense includes a set of defense-security principles and considerations, the observance of which can significantly contribute to the stability and survival of the system. In the city of Ilam, due to the border location, specific topographic conditions, and risk from natural disasters and human threats, the need to pay attention to passive defense to reduce the vulnerability of this infrastructure is felt more than ever. The study method in this research is descriptive-analytical and aims to evaluate the considerations of passive defense indicators and principles in urban water infrastructure. The data collection method was based on library and documentary studies, questionnaires, and interviews with experts in the field of passive defense and urban management. For data analysis, it was examined and evaluated using fuzzy DEMATEL analysis, and important factors were identified and classified. The results of the research are expected to show that a significant portion of Ilam's critical infrastructure has weaknesses in location, dispersion, and lack of retrofit plans based on passive principles. In conclusion, the research findings indicate that the location factor (B1) and decentralization and miniaturization (B10) are of great importance, while the deception factor (B8) is of very little importance in the discussion of urban water supply facilities from the perspective of passive defense. In the city of Ilam, due to its border location, specific topographical conditions, and vulnerability to natural disasters and human threats, the necessity of applying passive defense principles to reduce the vulnerability of these infrastructures is increasingly evident. This study employs a descriptive–analytical research method and aims to evaluate the indicators and principles of passive defense in urban water infrastructure. Data were collected through library and documentary studies, as well as questionnaires and interviews with experts in the fields of passive defense and urban management. Data analysis was conducted using the Fuzzy DEMATEL method to identify and classify the most significant factors. The research findings are expected to show that a considerable part of Ilam’s critical infrastructure suffers from weaknesses in site selection, spatial distribution, and the lack of reinforcement plans based on passive defense principles. The results further indicate that the site selection factor (B1) and decentralization and downsizing (B10) have very high importance, whereas the deception factor (B8) in the field of urban water supply facilities has very low importance from the perspective of passive defense. The concentration and density of population, capital, centers, and various facilities in cities, while having various economic, social, political, and environmental effects and consequences, has turned them into strategic targets in war and terrorist military attacks from a defense and security perspective. The experience of past wars confirms that vital centers and facilities in cities, especially vital water infrastructure, are among the primary targets that are attacked; however, passive defense includes a set of defense-security principles and considerations, the observance of which can significantly contribute to the stability and survival of the system. In the city of Ilam, due to the border location, specific topographic conditions, and risk from natural disasters and human threats, the need to pay attention to passive defense to reduce the vulnerability of this infrastructure is felt more than ever. The study method in this research is descriptive-analytical and aims to evaluate the considerations of passive defense indicators and principles in urban water infrastructure. The data collection method was based on library and documentary studies, questionnaires, and interviews with experts in the field of passive defense and urban management. For data analysis, it was examined and evaluated using fuzzy DEMATEL analysis, and important factors were identified and classified. The results of the research are expected to show that a significant portion of Ilam's critical infrastructure has weaknesses in location, dispersion, and lack of retrofit plans based on passive principles. In conclusion, the research findings indicate that the location factor (B1) and decentralization and miniaturization (B10) are of great importance, while the deception factor (B8) is of very little importance in the discussion of urban water supply facilities from the perspective of passive defense. In the city of Ilam, due to its border location, specific topographical conditions, and vulnerability to natural disasters and human threats, the necessity of applying passive defense principles to reduce the vulnerability of these infrastructures is increasingly evident. This study employs a descriptive–analytical research method and aims to evaluate the indicators and principles of passive defense in urban water infrastructure. Data were collected through library and documentary studies, as well as questionnaires and interviews with experts in the fields of passive defense and urban management. Data analysis was conducted using the Fuzzy DEMATEL method to identify and classify the most significant factors. The research findings are expected to show that a considerable part of Ilam’s critical infrastructure suffers from weaknesses in site selection, spatial distribution, and the lack of reinforcement plans based on passive defense principles. The results further indicate that the site selection factor (B1) and decentralization and downsizing (B10) have very high importance, whereas the deception factor (B8) in the field of urban water supply facilities has very low importance from the perspective of passive defense.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210484_5a077199d68ad5163ffc9cc25cfeeac6.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Conceptual Modeling of Urban Fire and Accident Risk Management with a Passive Defense Approach (Case Study: Mashhad Metropolis) Conceptual Modeling of Urban Fire and Accident Risk Management with a Passive Defense Approach (Case Study: Mashhad Metropolis) 163 191 210590 10.47176/pd.2026.1589 FA HASSAN SALMANI BIDESKAN PhD student, , Industerial Engineering,University of EyvaneKey, EyvaneKey,Iran 0009-0005-4720-5198 Ahmad Gaeini, Department of Applied mathematics ,Imam ‎Hossein ‎University,Tehran, Iran 0009-0000-0080-3573 Hossein Eghbali Assistant Professor,Department of Industrial Engineering, University of EyvaneKey, EyvaneKey ,Iran 0000-0001-7005-9428 Journal Article 2025 10 22 The rapid expansion of urbanization, population growth, and escalating natural and anthropogenic hazards in urban settings, the passive defense approach has emerged as a fundamental strategy to mitigate urban vulnerability and enhance resilience. This study aims to develop a conceptual model for urban fire and incident risk management, grounded in passive defense principles, with a specific focus on the metropolis of Mashhad—recognized as the spiritual capital of the Islamic world and Iran’s second-largest metropolitan area. Employing a qualitative, exploratory research design, this investigation utilizes thematic analysis as its methodological framework. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 20 qualified experts—including university scholars, experienced urban managers, and professionals from the Mashhad Municipal Fire and Safety Services Organization—alongside a systematic review of peer-reviewed articles, official documents, and incident reports pertinent to urban fires and emergencies. Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis techniques supported by MAXQDA software. The validity of the extracted model was rigorously assessed through Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) metrics. Findings indicate that factors influencing the occurrence and propagation of urban fires and incidents encompass 9 core dimensions and 58 constituent components. These principal dimensions include: socioeconomic factors (4 components), demographic characteristics (4 components), human and cultural factors (7 components), physical, urban planning, and technical infrastructure (11 components), tourism and pilgrimage-related factors (4 components), governance and managerial factors (8 components), construction-related factors (8 components), temporal, climatic, and environmental features (3 components), and structural factors of firefighting and emergency response organizations (9 components). Finally, the dimensions and components of the model obtained were categorized into four main areas of passive defense (physical and technical, cultural, people-centered (participatory), and economic). The proposed model, emphasizing the improvement of safety infrastructure, the development of preventive strategies, education, and public participation, shows that urban safety is the product of a dynamic interaction between city hardware, cultural software, social capital, and the financial and economic capacity of urban management. The rapid expansion of urbanization, population growth, and escalating natural and anthropogenic hazards in urban settings, the passive defense approach has emerged as a fundamental strategy to mitigate urban vulnerability and enhance resilience. This study aims to develop a conceptual model for urban fire and incident risk management, grounded in passive defense principles, with a specific focus on the metropolis of Mashhad—recognized as the spiritual capital of the Islamic world and Iran’s second-largest metropolitan area. Employing a qualitative, exploratory research design, this investigation utilizes thematic analysis as its methodological framework. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 20 qualified experts—including university scholars, experienced urban managers, and professionals from the Mashhad Municipal Fire and Safety Services Organization—alongside a systematic review of peer-reviewed articles, official documents, and incident reports pertinent to urban fires and emergencies. Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis techniques supported by MAXQDA software. The validity of the extracted model was rigorously assessed through Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) metrics. Findings indicate that factors influencing the occurrence and propagation of urban fires and incidents encompass 9 core dimensions and 58 constituent components. These principal dimensions include: socioeconomic factors (4 components), demographic characteristics (4 components), human and cultural factors (7 components), physical, urban planning, and technical infrastructure (11 components), tourism and pilgrimage-related factors (4 components), governance and managerial factors (8 components), construction-related factors (8 components), temporal, climatic, and environmental features (3 components), and structural factors of firefighting and emergency response organizations (9 components). Finally, the dimensions and components of the model obtained were categorized into four main areas of passive defense (physical and technical, cultural, people-centered (participatory), and economic). The proposed model, emphasizing the improvement of safety infrastructure, the development of preventive strategies, education, and public participation, shows that urban safety is the product of a dynamic interaction between city hardware, cultural software, social capital, and the financial and economic capacity of urban management.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210590_1c3f0b85cae510cc6d464f2a24df31eb.pdf

Imam Hussein University Passive Defense 2008-6849 17 1 2026 05 22 Optimization of Critical Infrastructure Location Using TTH Metaheuristic Algorithm with Cost-Benefit Principle Approach Optimization of Critical Infrastructure Location Using TTH Metaheuristic Algorithm with Cost-Benefit Principle Approach 193 211 210487 10.47176/pd.2026.1599 FA Sayyed Ehsan Abtahi Department of Civil engineering, Ro.C., Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran. Davood Sedaghat Shayegan Assistant Professor, Department of Civil engineering, Ro.C., Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran. 0000-0002-5024-6426 Ali Asghar Amir Kardoust Department of Civil engineering, Ro.C., Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran. 0000-0002-1960-9671 Journal Article 2025 11 01 In recent decades, one of the country's fundamental challenges in the fields of defense and security has been the traditional view of the subject of passive defense. In such a way that planning for the location of infrastructures at the national level, cities or even construction sites, has been carried out without considering technological tools such as artificial intelligence and metaheuristic algorithms and solely based on the experience of experts in the field of passive defense engineering. Considering the classification of location problems as an NP-complete problem, traditional and precise mathematical methods, especially for medium and large-scale problems, cannot find the optimal solution in a reasonable time and while respecting all the principles of passive defense. As a result, researchers and scholars have been looking for alternative scientific methods to solve these problems that can provide the best answer at the right time. The best solution to this challenge is the use of metaheuristic algorithms.New metaheuristic methods have the potential to provide optimal solutions in a shorter time frame while respecting all the principles of location. Two case studies have been selected for this study to demonstrate the usefulness and efficiency of the TTH metaheuristic algorithm in optimizing location and layout of construction sites. In the first case study, the best, average and worst solutions were 12.538, 12.541 and 12.548 respectively, and in the second case study, the best solutions were 92.758, 96.386 and 100.014, which are more optimal than the results of the ECBO (Enhanced colliding bodies optimization), CBO (Colliding bodies optimization) and PSO (Particle swarm optimization) algorithms. Numerical studies show that the TTH algorithm can achieve promising results and has advantages in addressing complex optimization problems. In recent decades, one of the country's fundamental challenges in the fields of defense and security has been the traditional view of the subject of passive defense. In such a way that planning for the location of infrastructures at the national level, cities or even construction sites, has been carried out without considering technological tools such as artificial intelligence and metaheuristic algorithms and solely based on the experience of experts in the field of passive defense engineering. Considering the classification of location problems as an NP-complete problem, traditional and precise mathematical methods, especially for medium and large-scale problems, cannot find the optimal solution in a reasonable time and while respecting all the principles of passive defense. As a result, researchers and scholars have been looking for alternative scientific methods to solve these problems that can provide the best answer at the right time. The best solution to this challenge is the use of metaheuristic algorithms.New metaheuristic methods have the potential to provide optimal solutions in a shorter time frame while respecting all the principles of location. Two case studies have been selected for this study to demonstrate the usefulness and efficiency of the TTH metaheuristic algorithm in optimizing location and layout of construction sites. In the first case study, the best, average and worst solutions were 12.538, 12.541 and 12.548 respectively, and in the second case study, the best solutions were 92.758, 96.386 and 100.014, which are more optimal than the results of the ECBO (Enhanced colliding bodies optimization), CBO (Colliding bodies optimization) and PSO (Particle swarm optimization) algorithms. Numerical studies show that the TTH algorithm can achieve promising results and has advantages in addressing complex optimization problems.

https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210487_0d9691ebc94e864816dac15e471bff49.pdf