https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/ Passive Defense en daily 1 Fri, 22 May 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Fri, 22 May 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210448.html Hazardous material storage and containment equipment in industries are constantly exposed to serious threats due to risks from intentional and malicious attacks. This necessitates serious attention and actions regarding safety and security in these facilities. This research focuses on the assessment and modeling of safety distances for pressurized storage equipment against shooting threats. In this context, threats from small arms were first identified, and various bullets were categorized based on their physical and mechanical characteristics. Subsequently, using bullet penetration models, the projectile's critical velocity and maximum stand-off distance were calculated. The results indicate that safe distances depend on the type of weapon and the characteristics of the target, with stand-off distances averaging less than 11 meters for handguns and varying up to 1135 meters for rifle projectiles. Additionally, a Monte Carlo analysis examined the impact of the shooter's offset angle on safety distances, revealing that this effect is particularly significant when shooting at small targets. These findings serve as a basis for designing protective barriers and security measures in hazardous material storage facilities. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the importance of employing civil defense approaches and training personnel to enhance the resilience and safety of these facilities. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210196.html Forest fires are a serious threat to natural resources and critical infrastructure, causing extensive economic, environmental, and security damages annually. This research aims to strengthen passive defense and crisis management systems by presenting an innovative artificial intelligence-based approach for predicting burned area extent when facing forest fires. In this research, the XGBRegressor algorithm within machine learning framework was used to accurately predict the area damaged by fire using meteorological, geographical, and temporal data. The model achieves RMSE and MAE evaluation metrics of 61.602 and 12.273 respectively, enabling resource and equipment planning for fire suppression. The research findings demonstrate that through spatial-temporal fire analysis, critical points and high-risk periods can be identified. Additionally, the potential fire area can be estimated with minimal error, allowing targeted allocation of defensive resources. This approach, in line with intelligent territorial planning and proactive crisis management, enhances ability to protect critical infrastructures adjacent to forest areas. Moreover, this model can serve as a complement to an early warning system within the framework of passive defense and environmental resilience, playing a crucial role in reducing damages and preserving national resources. Although this study focuses on data from outside Iran, the presented research has the potential for localization to Iranian forests and can be used as a strategic tool in the country's passive defense. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210480.html This study was conducted to investigate and identify methods and defensive strategies for removing contamination from radioactive materials after a nuclear accident in forest ecosystems. For this purpose, published results of experimental methods on how to remove contamination from the forest environment after various nuclear accidents that occurred around the world, especially the Chernobyl accident (1986), were studied. It was found that with the deposition of radioactive materials in the forest environment in a short period of time, within a few months, the concentration of contamination in forest food products such as mushrooms and berries increases sharply, and forest animals also become contaminated by eating them. One of the ways in which radioactive contamination is transferred from the forest ecosystem to the human food chain is through the consumption of forest food or hunting animals from contaminated forests. After one year, soil becomes the main source of radionuclide contamination in the forest. Also, by removing contaminated wood from the forest and using it, the routes of transmission of contamination to people who are not normally directly exposed to radioactive radiation in the forest increase. There are various countermeasures to eliminate or reduce radioactive contamination through the forest environment. However, only those measures that have a high feasibility and are effective in eliminating or reducing contamination should be used to eliminate or reduce contamination. It seems that the rate of transmission of radioactive contamination to humans through forest ecosystems can be minimized by implementing measures such as; limiting access to forests, preventing forest fires, chemically modifying forest soil, processing raw forest products, changing hunting times in the forest, and avoiding collecting forest food products. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210481.html This article examines the role of light in enhancing the spatial desirability of metro stations, focusing on safety and security. Given the underground and often dark nature of metro stations, proper lighting is essential not only for proper orientation and visibility, but also significantly affects the sense of security and comfort of users. The purpose of this research is to explain the place and role of light in the spatial desirability of underground metro stations and to understand the factors affecting the user experience and creating a safe and secure space for passengers; paying attention to passive defense considerations in these spaces will be protective and will serve as one of the components of power superiority and security in times of crisis. The research method in this study is descriptive-analytical and the data collection method is through completing a questionnaire. After identifying the indicators using library studies and referring to reliable sources, the opinions of expert experts are used to evaluate these indicators using a questionnaire tool in the context of the test content in question. By explaining the test objectives to them and providing them with operational definitions related to the content of the questions, they are asked to classify each of the questions. In the next step, questionnaire number two was distributed in 10 underground stations of the Tehran Metro (Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), Darwaze Shemiran, Imam Khomeini (may Allah be pleased with him), Shahid Navab Safavi, Vali Asr Square (peace be upon him), Shahr Theater, Tohid, Darwaze Dolat, Shohada Square, and Shadman); in order to examine the role and effect of each of the light quality components in improving safety and security indicators and to determine their status. SPSS software was used to analyze the questionnaire. The results show that among the 19 spatial desirability indicators, the following indicators: safety and security along with readability, accessibility and communication with a CVR of 0.68 have the greatest impact on creating spatial desirability in underground metro stations. Therefore, appropriate and planned lighting, taking into account the psychological and behavioral aspects of users, can effectively increase the level of safety and security in metro stations and ultimately help improve the overall passenger experience. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210542.html This study was designed to analyze the factors affecting the management of economic crises and to examine the role of “resistance identity” in explaining and enhancing the capabilities of households living in Mashhad in confronting such crises. In terms of methodology, the present study is a quantitative research project with a cross-sectional correlational design, conducted using random sampling among 249 heads of households residing in Mashhad. The data were collected through a researcher-made questionnaire. For data analysis, exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify the underlying dimensions of resistance identity, followed by multiple regression analysis to assess the impact of these factors on the management of economic crises. The findings of this study indicated that the dimensions of resistance identity jointly explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. The components of “economic independence” (with an emphasis on self-reliance and support for domestic production) and “creativity” (as the ability to provide innovative solutions) had the strongest positive and significant effects. In addition, “emotional resilience” (the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks), as one of the components of the emotional-psychological dimension, played a significant supportive role. In contrast, factors such as “unwillingness to engage in teamwork,” “materialism,” “speculative behaviors,” and “hasty decision-making” had significant negative effects on crisis management. Therefore, economic and social policymaking especially within the framework of economic defense should, in addition to structural interventions, focus on strengthening self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and the psychological resilience of households. The findings indicate that the dimensions of resistance identity collectively explain 34.8% of the variance in economic crisis management. Among these dimensions, economic independence (emphasizing self-reliance and support for domestic production) and creativity (as the ability to generate innovative solutions) exhibited the strongest positive and statistically significant effects. In addition, emotional resilience—defined as the ability to maintain psychological balance when facing financial shocks—played a significant supportive role as a component of the emotional–psychological dimension. Conversely, factors such as reluctance toward collective action, materialism, speculative behaviors, and impulsive decision-making showed significant negative effects on economic crisis management. Accordingly, economic and social policies—particularly within the framework of economic passive defense—should, alongside structural interventions, place greater emphasis on strengthening household self-reliance, innovation, social cohesion, and psychological resilience https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210485.html Given the decline in water resources, the control and reduction of evaporation from free water surfaces in reservoirs and dams is of considerable importance. One effective method for achieving this goal is the application of anti-evaporation surface-covering fluids. In this study, the effect of the anti-evaporation fluid hexadecanol on water evaporation was investigated. In the experimental section, the reduction of surface water evaporation over a 16-day period was assessed using a Class A pan. During this period, parameters influencing evaporation namely air flow velocity, temperature, and relative humidity were measured three times per day. In the numerical section, the simulation was carried out using the finite-volume method by solving th continuity and momentum equations under the assumption of multiphase flow. The multiphase model was implemented via the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, considering four phases: water, air, water vapor, and the anti-evaporation fluid. Simulations were performed for two conditions—with and without the anti-evaporation fluid applied to the water surface—using an initial water depth of 2. 4 cm. Following mesh-independence analysis and validation of the model with the experimental data, the unsteady simulation results were examined over a 24-minute interval. The findings indicated that the use of the covering fluid can reduce evaporation by approximately 76%. Furthermore, the discrepancy between the simulation predictions and the experimental measurements was approximately 13%, which is regarded as acceptable. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210447.html Throughout human history, housing has consistently been a fundamental need. Today, residential zones play a decisive role in shaping cities; however, they face considerable deficiencies across multiple resilience indicators. Consequently, natural and human-made hazards constitute a core challenge to achieving safety and sustainable security in residential areas. This applied study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach, using documentary research and questionnaires for data collection. First, intentional human-made threats were identified and evaluated with the MARCOS method. Second, indicators for enhancing the resilience of residential zones against these threats were specified and assessed using the IHWP method. Third, the results of the second stage were applied to the case study of the Evin neighborhood. Findings from stage one indicate that, among drone and missile attacks, mortar attacks, terrorist attacks, riots/unrest, arson, chemical attacks, and biological attacks, drone and missile attacks have the highest likelihood of occurrence. Stage-two results show that, in descending order, the criteria of building and structure, land use, urban spatial structure, architecture, supporting urban utilities and facilities, income, employment, population, and social cohesion exert the greatest influence on enhancing residential resilience. In stage three, the resilience of Evin’s residential zones to drone and missile attacks was estimated at 5.73%, signaling a highly unfavorable condition and multiple challenges across the neighborhood’s physical, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210193.html Smart cities, relying on advanced technologies, sensors, databases, and software architecture, seek to improve urban quality of life. However, the extensive use of technology and information infrastructure has made these cities vulnerable to a wide range of threats. One of the key strategies to counter these threats and reduce vulnerabilities is to integrate civil defense requirements into the structure of smart city development. This research aims to examine the synergy between the concepts of smart city and civil defense by reviewing relevant literature and focusing on the dimensions, components, and key indicators of both concepts. The requirements of civil defense in the governance component of smart cities are also explained. Furthermore, Tehran's District 1 is selected as a case study. Using a combination of methods, including literature review, questionnaires, and field observations, the status of smart infrastructure in six main components of the smart city, namely smart economy, smart living, smart environment, smart mobility, smart governance, and smart people, has been evaluated. The statistical population of the study includes experts and specialists in urban planning, information technology, and civil defense. Data collection to prioritize sensors was conducted through questionnaires and analyzed using the fuzzy Delphi method in two rounds. The results of the evaluation show that the studied area is not in a satisfactory condition in terms of the software and hardware infrastructure required for smart development. Moreover, civil defense indicators are of paramount importance in smart development, and sensors related to smart governance have the highest priority. This is followed by sensors related to smart living, smart people, smart economy, smart mobility, and smart environment, respectively. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210197.html Qom province, due to its geographical location and cultural, political, and social conditions, has always been prone to natural and man-made hazards. For crisis management in the health system, the Ministry of Health has developed a program entitled "Health System Response to Disasters" and communicated it to the provincial universities of medical sciences. This program has been implemented in the Qom Provincial Health Center for 10 years, but it seems that it did not have the necessary quality for crisis management. The aim of this research is to identify the challenges of implementing this program in the Qom Provincial Health Center and to provide solutions to overcome these conditions. This research uses a qualitative descriptive-analytical method and, citing research literature, organizational information, and expert interviews, has extracted the program challenges based on the 12 criteria of the Burke-Litwin model. 45 important challenges have been extracted based on categorization, with 4 main categories and 12 subcategories. The results of addressing these challenges include: implementation, promotion, effectiveness, efficiency and productivity of the program, response to the crisis, recording accurate information, staff performance, community behavior, crisis management, public participation, and program monitoring. Strategies and solutions to overcome the challenges; achievements in effectively improving the health care system, upgrading the components of the health care system with respect to disasters, and reducing the risks and consequences of disasters at the community level have been stated, and finally, the results of these steps have been summarized to create a model. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210203.html The shift in modern warfare paradigms, focusing on population centers and vital urban hubs, has significantly increased the vulnerability of cities to military attacks. Experiences from contemporary wars, particularly the eight-year Sacred Defense, indicate a rise in civilian casualties and the destruction of urban infrastructure due to advancements in military weaponry. Concurrent with these threats, accelerating population growth and limited spatial resources have highlighted the necessity for the optimal and multi-purpose utilization of underground spaces. The present study aims to define and categorize the design requirements for multi-purpose underground spaces in residential complexes. This research, employing a mixed-methods approach that includes documentary studies, content analysis, and the survey analysis of quantitative and qualitative data from a population of experts in passive defense and urban design, has identified key requirements. The results indicate that these requirements can be categorized into five main dimensions: Spatial-Functional, Infrastructural-Technical, Service-Support, Sensory-Psychological, and Safety-Access. Key components highlighted include modular design with prefabricated elements, self-sufficient HVAC systems, the design of safe and multiple access routes, standard human-centric lighting, and the provision of emergency facilities. Furthermore, the innovation of this research lies in statistically proving the importance of creating a sense of security and psychological tranquility in crisis situations—a critical and frequently overlooked requirement. The findings of this paper can serve as a valuable guide for policymakers, urban designers, and engineers in enhancing urban resilience and the efficiency of underground spaces within national housing projects and other urban development initiatives. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210483.html Security in residential complexes is one of the key dimensions for enhancing the quality of life and reducing vulnerability to natural and human-made threats. The passive defense approach, as a non-military strategy, can play a significant role in strengthening both the physical and perceptual–spatial safety of housing environments. This study aimed to identify and evaluate the components and subcomponents of safe residential complex design based on the principles of passive defense in the city of Tabriz, considering its specific climatic and physical characteristics.Tabriz, due to its unique geopolitical position in the northwest of Iran, history of frequent earthquakes, high population density, concentration of deteriorated urban fabrics, and its industrial significance, is among the cities where analyzing passive defense has particular importance. The research is applied–descriptive in nature and was conducted in two stages. First, the theoretical foundations were reviewed through library studies, and a conceptual model comprising ten main components and forty-one subcomponents was developed. Then, to evaluate the model, a researcher-made questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale was designed and distributed among 60 housing experts, including architects and civil engineers. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.92. Data were analyzed using SPSS software through means comparison, independent t-test, and one-way ANOVA to examine differences among groups based on gender, work experience, and education level. The results indicated that the component “mobility facilities and emergency evacuation” had the highest importance from experts’ viewpoints (mean = 4.525), while “sense of place attachment” had the lowest acceptance (mean = 3.42). At the subcomponent level, 33 indicators were confirmed and 8 were rejected. Limited differences among groups were observed, mainly related to perceptual and psychological dimensions.Overall, the findings highlight that designing safe residential complexes requires simultaneous attention to both physical and perceptual dimensions of security. Moreover, the observed differences among experts emphasize the need for comprehensive and multidimensional approaches in policymaking and design to encompass the diverse perspectives and needs of users. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210484.html The concentration and density of population, capital, centers, and various facilities in cities, while having various economic, social, political, and environmental effects and consequences, has turned them into strategic targets in war and terrorist military attacks from a defense and security perspective. The experience of past wars confirms that vital centers and facilities in cities, especially vital water infrastructure, are among the primary targets that are attacked; however, passive defense includes a set of defense-security principles and considerations, the observance of which can significantly contribute to the stability and survival of the system. In the city of Ilam, due to the border location, specific topographic conditions, and risk from natural disasters and human threats, the need to pay attention to passive defense to reduce the vulnerability of this infrastructure is felt more than ever. The study method in this research is descriptive-analytical and aims to evaluate the considerations of passive defense indicators and principles in urban water infrastructure. The data collection method was based on library and documentary studies, questionnaires, and interviews with experts in the field of passive defense and urban management. For data analysis, it was examined and evaluated using fuzzy DEMATEL analysis, and important factors were identified and classified. The results of the research are expected to show that a significant portion of Ilam's critical infrastructure has weaknesses in location, dispersion, and lack of retrofit plans based on passive principles. In conclusion, the research findings indicate that the location factor (B1) and decentralization and miniaturization (B10) are of great importance, while the deception factor (B8) is of very little importance in the discussion of urban water supply facilities from the perspective of passive defense.   In the city of Ilam, due to its border location, specific topographical conditions, and vulnerability to natural disasters and human threats, the necessity of applying passive defense principles to reduce the vulnerability of these infrastructures is increasingly evident.   This study employs a descriptive–analytical research method and aims to evaluate the indicators and principles of passive defense in urban water infrastructure. Data were collected through library and documentary studies, as well as questionnaires and interviews with experts in the fields of passive defense and urban management. Data analysis was conducted using the Fuzzy DEMATEL method to identify and classify the most significant factors.   The research findings are expected to show that a considerable part of Ilam’s critical infrastructure suffers from weaknesses in site selection, spatial distribution, and the lack of reinforcement plans based on passive defense principles. The results further indicate that the site selection factor (B1) and decentralization and downsizing (B10) have very high importance, whereas the deception factor (B8) in the field of urban water supply facilities has very low importance from the perspective of passive defense. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210590.html The rapid expansion of urbanization, population growth, and escalating natural and anthropogenic hazards in urban settings, the passive defense approach has emerged as a fundamental strategy to mitigate urban vulnerability and enhance resilience. This study aims to develop a conceptual model for urban fire and incident risk management, grounded in passive defense principles, with a specific focus on the metropolis of Mashhad—recognized as the spiritual capital of the Islamic world and Iran’s second-largest metropolitan area. Employing a qualitative, exploratory research design, this investigation utilizes thematic analysis as its methodological framework. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 20 qualified experts—including university scholars, experienced urban managers, and professionals from the Mashhad Municipal Fire and Safety Services Organization—alongside a systematic review of peer-reviewed articles, official documents, and incident reports pertinent to urban fires and emergencies. Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis techniques supported by MAXQDA software. The validity of the extracted model was rigorously assessed through Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) metrics. Findings indicate that factors influencing the occurrence and propagation of urban fires and incidents encompass 9 core dimensions and 58 constituent components. These principal dimensions include: socioeconomic factors (4 components), demographic characteristics (4 components), human and cultural factors (7 components), physical, urban planning, and technical infrastructure (11 components), tourism and pilgrimage-related factors (4 components), governance and managerial factors (8 components), construction-related factors (8 components), temporal, climatic, and environmental features (3 components), and structural factors of firefighting and emergency response organizations (9 components). Finally, the dimensions and components of the model obtained were categorized into four main areas of passive defense (physical and technical, cultural, people-centered (participatory), and economic). The proposed model, emphasizing the improvement of safety infrastructure, the development of preventive strategies, education, and public participation, shows that urban safety is the product of a dynamic interaction between city hardware, cultural software, social capital, and the financial and economic capacity of urban management. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210487.html In recent decades, one of the country's fundamental challenges in the fields of defense and security has been the traditional view of the subject of passive defense. In such a way that planning for the location of infrastructures at the national level, cities or even construction sites, has been carried out without considering technological tools such as artificial intelligence and metaheuristic algorithms and solely based on the experience of experts in the field of passive defense engineering. Considering the classification of location problems as an NP-complete problem, traditional and precise mathematical methods, especially for medium and large-scale problems, cannot find the optimal solution in a reasonable time and while respecting all the principles of passive defense. As a result, researchers and scholars have been looking for alternative scientific methods to solve these problems that can provide the best answer at the right time. The best solution to this challenge is the use of metaheuristic algorithms.New metaheuristic methods have the potential to provide optimal solutions in a shorter time frame while respecting all the principles of location. Two case studies have been selected for this study to demonstrate the usefulness and efficiency of the TTH metaheuristic algorithm in optimizing location and layout of construction sites. In the first case study, the best, average and worst solutions were 12.538, 12.541 and 12.548 respectively, and in the second case study, the best solutions were 92.758, 96.386 and 100.014, which are more optimal than the results of the ECBO (Enhanced colliding bodies optimization), CBO (Colliding bodies optimization) and PSO (Particle swarm optimization) algorithms. Numerical studies show that the TTH algorithm can achieve promising results and has advantages in addressing complex optimization problems. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210486.html Building upon a previous study concerning the physical, mechanical, and ballistic properties of an AP/Al/HTPB composite propellant (19 wt% aluminum), the present research focuses on the experimental assessment of its mechanical sensitivity, specifically impact and friction sensitivity. The primary objective is to quantitatively establish the No-Go Limit in accordance with military and industrial safety standards to ensure operational security. This investigation specifically evaluates the influence of formulation parameters, including the R-ratio, curing agent type, and AP particle size distribution, on the sensitivity profiles of high-aluminum-content propellants. Impact test results indicate that this property is predominantly governed by the bulk mechanical properties of the polymer network; reducing the R-ratio significantly enhanced ductility, leading to a 33% reduction in impact sensitivity. Conversely, switching the curing agent from DDI to IPDI resulted in increased sensitivity. Friction sensitivity, however, exhibited a distinct behavior, primarily controlled by the surface chemistry and physical characteristics of the solid particles, where smaller AP particles correlated with higher sensitivity. These findings definitively confirm the lack of direct correlation between impact and friction sensitivities. From a passive defense perspective, the established No-Go Limits (force ranges of 85-95 N and 72-83 N) serve as a critical foundation for risk management protocols aimed at hardening production facilities, securing storage, and mitigating secondary explosions in vital transportation arteries. Such quantitative data facilitate the formulation of rigorous safety standards to reduce the vulnerability of sensitive infrastructure to mechanical stimuli. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210496.html The main objective of this research is to identify and assess the physical and environmental vulnerabilities (building architecture, site, and surrounding environment) of Hazrat Vali-e-Asr (AS) Hospital in Birjand against the threat of conventional airstrikes and to propose architectural solutions based on passive defense principles to reduce these vulnerabilities and enhance the resilience of this medical center. This applied research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical approach and a mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative) strategy. First, vulnerability assessment criteria were extracted from the literature; then, using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method and the opinions of 14 experts, the relative weights of the criteria in three areas—surrounding environment, site, and building—were determined. In the next stage, the existing condition of the hospital was examined through field observations, and the vulnerability level of each sub-criterion was scored using a five-point Likert scale. Finally, by integrating the AHP weights and field scores, the relative and overall vulnerability levels were calculated and analyzed. The results showed that the overall vulnerability of Hazrat Vali-e-Asr (AS) Hospital to airstrikes is at a "moderate" level (with a score of 4.190). The highest vulnerability pertains to the "main building" (score 5/124 - moderate level), primarily due to non-resistant façade materials, non-aerodynamic form, vulnerable windows, and inappropriate placement of critical sections. The "hospital site" (score 4/211 - moderate level) was also assessed as vulnerable due to the concentration of activities in one building, lack of multi-purpose open spaces and parking, and issues with site entrances. The "surrounding environment" (score 3/233 - low level) had the best condition compared to the previous two areas, and its conditions were suitable based on passive defense principles; however, challenges such as the traffic-congested distance to the nearest fire station and traffic adjacent to main arteries were its weaknesses. Therefore, it can be concluded that the main hospital building requires more immediate actions. Proposed architectural solutions include strengthening facades and windows, improving the building form, relocating critical sections to safer areas, securing entrances and long corridors, increasing dual-purpose green spaces, increasing parking spaces, increasing access routes, and reinforcing the perimeter fence on the site. Implementing these solutions can significantly increase the hospital's resilience against aerial threats and help ensure the continuity of vital services in critical situations. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210556.html The structure and intrinsic quality of contemporary power systems have experienced significant changes due to the exponential increase in the penetration of renewable energy sources. Today's power systems face new technical challenges due to the use of distributed generation sources based on power electronics and difficulties in ensuring their safe operation. The unpredictable increase and variability, coupled with the higher proportion of renewable sources in electricity generation, have also led to a reduction in the rotational inertia of power systems. Nowadays, weather events impose staggering economic and social costs on human societies. Despite the low probability of such events, their significant intensity and impact on the safe operation of power systems have drawn much attention to enhancing grid resilience. Portable storage systems can increase grid resilience and security against events such as power outages, load fluctuations, equipment failures, and other unforeseen incidents in the power grid. These systems, with their portability, can be quickly deployed at needed locations to supply electricity during emergencies. This article discusses various measures to enhance the resilience of the power system and identifies potential challenges for future research. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210877.html In seismically active regions with active fault systems, the safe design and construction of tunnels consistently pose significant technical and geotechnical challenges. Segmental tunnels, as one of the most common tunneling methods in underground projects, are highly susceptible to fault-induced ground movements. Understanding how various tectonic fault types—including reverse, normal, and strike-slip faults—affect the structural stability of tunnels, particularly under varying geotechnical and geometrical conditions, plays a key role in enhancing their safety and durability.In this study, the behavior of segmental tunnels subjected to active faults is investigated through numerical modeling using FLAC3D software. A parametric sensitivity analysis was conducted on segment thickness, soil mechanical properties, tunnel depth, and fault dip angle, evaluated through four types of numerical errors: discretization, convergence, rounding, and modeling errors. The results showed that a mesh size of 10 cm reduces the discretization error to 4.09%, and applying an unbalanced force criterion less than 1×10⁻⁵ ensures model convergence. In reverse faults, increasing the segment thickness and employing soft soil conditions reduce displacement. In normal faults, tunnel depth and fault angle have the greatest influence on ring separation. For strike-slip faults, loose soils combined with vertical fault angles contribute to minimizing deformations. These findings provide valuable guidance for optimizing tunnel design in active seismic zones. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210878.html Abstract Audio signal processing in military environments has consistently faced significant challenges due to the presence of complex noises such as explosions, weapon fire, and electromagnetic interference. This study presents an advanced method for removing environmental noise from military audio signals, utilizing a Least Mean Squares (LMS) adaptive filter with a dynamic learning rate. The primary innovation of this research is the simultaneous use of five input signal features—namely, energy, variance, covariance, entropy, and zero-crossing rate—for the automatic adjustment of the learning rate. The optimal combination of these features was achieved using a genetic algorithm with a population of 50 chromosomes over 10 generations, yielding the optimal coefficient set: [0.8486, 0.1872, 0.5016, 0.9195, 0.3582]. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves a 12.43 dB improvement in the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) – from -0.18 dB to 12.25 dB – and reduces the Mean Squared Error (MSE) to 0.0016. Furthermore, the method shows a 1.95 dB superior SNR improvement compared to fixed learning-rate filters and a 1.56-fold reduction in error variance. By maintaining an optimal balance between accuracy and computational complexity, this algorithm is well-suited for critical military applications. Keywords: Adaptive Filter, Noise Cancellation, Military Audio Processing, Dynamic Learning Parameter, SNR, Genetic Algorithm, Coefficient Optimization. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210879.html With the rapid growth of satellite communications across various domains, particularly in military applications, and the critical importance of communication security, the use of artificial intelligence-based methods for preventing signal eavesdropping and mitigating interference has gained significant attention. This paper proposes a multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network-based method for detecting and identifying interference in the DVB-S2 satellite communication standard. The dataset used in this study includes modulated signals (QPSK and APSK with orders of 8, 16, and 32) as well as various types of radio frequency interference, including Chirp Interference (CI), Continuous Wave Interference (CWI), and Multi-Continuous Wave Interference (MCWI). In the proposed approach, a large number of statistical and spectral features are first extracted from the signals. Then, the top ten features are selected using Mahalanobis distance, Euclidean distance, Chi-square, and Variance-to-Mean ratio (VdM) criteria to optimize the model’s performance. Numerical results demonstrate that the VdM criterion improves interference detection accuracy, especially under low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) conditions. Specifically, at SNR = 0 dB, the proposed method provides up to 6% higher accuracy compared to previous approaches, and at SNR = 9 dB, its accuracy reaches 99.74%. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210880.html This paper introduces a novel and hybrid framework for Android malware detection that integrates an Improved Particle Swarm Optimization (IPSO) algorithm with a Fuzzy Kernel Support Vector Machine (FKSVM). The primary key objective is to address the limitations of traditional methods, such as high feature dimensionality, premature convergence, and the inability to model the inherent uncertainty in malware data set. The IPSO algorithm employs a dynamic inertia weight and a random mutation operator to prevent premature convergence and to select an optimal feature subset. Subsequently, the FKSVM model, utilizing a novel fuzzy kernel, effectively handles data uncertainty. Evaluation of the proposed framework on the CIC-AndMal2020 data set demonstrates that it achieves 99.98% accuracy in binary classification and a very low false alarm rate of 0.01%. These results confirm the framework's superior performance compared to existing methods in terms of accuracy, speed, and robustness against adversarial attacks, validating its overall effectiveness. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210881.html Nowadays, drone threats have become one of the most significant and influential aspects of threats in warfare. The possibility of using drones in wartime and non-wartime conditions against countries, on the one hand, and the history of drone threats against some national infrastructures in recent years, on the other hand, have highlighted the necessity of paying serious attention to the issue of drone threats more than ever. This research has been conducted with the aim of identifying and formulating principles for the protection of critical infrastructure against drone threats. In fact, it can be said that if the formulated principles are implemented in existing and future critical infrastructures, a significant degree of vulnerabilities to drone threats will be reduced. From the perspective of its purpose, this research falls under applied studies and has been conducted using the qualitative method of thematic analysis. Since macro principles are derived from micro textual data, the research process is inductive. The research data were collected through two methods: documentary and library studies, as well as interviews with experts. The research results led to the identification of 12 fundamental principles, which are as follows: the principle of intelligent combined defense, the principle of layered defense, the principle of self-reliance, the principle of consequence management, the principle of infrastructure self-protection, the principle of prioritization, the principle of strengthening, the principle of innovation and updating, the principle of dispersion and division, the principle of modern camouflage and concealment, the principle of service chain immunity, and the principle of reducing attractiveness. In the end, an operational definition of each identified principle was provided to standardize the interpretations of the acquired principles. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210882.html In recent decades, the increase in widespread outages caused by unexpected events such as floods and storms has doubled the importance of resilience studies in power distribution networks. Therefore, by timely identifying the location of the incident and isolating it, as well as designing MGs that are capable of providing their maximum load by planning the energy resources available under the incident conditions, the costs related to outages can be significantly reduced and the network resilience can be improved. In this paper, an optimization problem with three objective functions is introduced, the first term of which aims to reduce the cost of turning on/off the DGs available in each MG and also to reduce the costs related to battery charging/discharging in MGs. In the second term, in order to increase the self-sufficiency of MGs, an objective function has been introduced so that MGs can provide their required power as much as the energy market between MGs and the upstream network allows, and increase their profits by charging and discharging batteries and turning their DGs on and off at different times of the day and based on the proposed price of the upstream network. Finally, in the third term, the proposed objective function will seek to reduce the losses in the MGs under study. A hybrid optimization method based on particle and genetic algorithms has been used to solve the proposed objective function. The results are implemented on a 33-bus test network and show that the proposed method has performed better than conventional optimization methods. Also, the proposed optimal scheduling in MGs reduced losses and increased their profits. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210883.html Today, the concentration of population, infrastructure, and critical urban land uses has significantly increased cities’ vulnerability to human-induced threats and natural hazards. This issue is of greater importance in border cities due to their geopolitical position, communication role, and the presence of key administrative and service centers. Ilam, as one of Iran’s border cities and the main gateway for pilgrims traveling to the holy shrines in Iraq, contains a considerable concentration of vital, sensitive, and important land uses. In crisis situations, this concentration may lead to widespread functional disruption and increased losses. Therefore, assessing the spatial pattern of vulnerability and identifying high-risk zones based on passive defense principles is essential for enhancing urban resilience and reducing potential risks. The present study aims to evaluate and zone the vulnerability of urban infrastructure and land uses in Ilam from a passive defense perspective. The research method is descriptive–analytical, and the required data were collected through documentary studies and field surveys, including expert interviews and questionnaire distribution. In this study, 30 indicators related to vulnerable urban elements were identified, and their weights were determined using the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP). Subsequently, the spatial layers associated with each indicator were prepared in the GIS environment. After standardization and application of the calculated weights, the layers were integrated to produce the final vulnerability zoning map of the city. The results indicate a clear spatial concentration of vulnerability in Ilam. The central and northwestern parts of the city, due to high population density, concentration of vital and sensitive land uses, and the inadequate spatial distribution of services, fall within the high and very high vulnerability classes. Overall, approximately 52% of the city area is classified as high and very high vulnerability, 12% as moderate vulnerability, and 36% as low vulnerability. Furthermore, healthcare facilities, administrative– managerial centers, and transportation and access networks were identified as the most influential elements with the highest vulnerability weights. Based on these findings, strategies such as balanced distribution of critical land uses, reduction of functional concentration in the urban core, strengthening of supporting infrastructure, and incorporation of passive defense requirements into urban development plans are recommended. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210884.html Here is the English translation of the abstract. The paragraph structure has been preserved, and the word count is well under the 500-word limit. In recent years, the escalation of military aerial threats against urban infrastructure, alongside the necessity of finding strategies to identify and counter them, has become a fundamental challenge for governments. Among these, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) pose a novel challenge; confronting them systematically requires a precise understanding of their nature and operational strategies in multidimensional urban warfare. The current research aims to identify the characteristics of drone threats and propose multi-layered defensive strategies to enhance the physical resilience of urban settlements. Given the operational nature of the proposed strategies, this study is categorized as applied research. To this end, this study was conducted using a mixed-methods (quantitative-qualitative) approach and utilized a retrospective analysis method to trace and analyze vulnerabilities. The research data were collected and analyzed through documentary and library studies, as well as field observations and investigations of three residential complexes (Shahid Mahallati Town, Shahid Chamran Town, and Sarv Complex). Research findings indicate that effective defense in urban environments requires the integration of "immediate" and "long-term" measures. Regarding immediate measures, the study recommends employing physical blocking systems proportional to the mass and velocity of the projectile—such as flexible nets and rigid grids—to neutralize the kinetic energy of the threat prior to impact. Conversely, long-term measures take a macro perspective to institutionalize physical defense requirements within the city. In the dimension of surface space, establishing separate air corridors for authorized transit and locating sensitive buildings far from main thoroughfares renders the attacker's visual navigation systems ineffective in the event of GPS disruption. Emphasizing this approach, physical strategies in the above-ground dimension are articulated across three scales. At the urban block scale, avoiding uniform height codes and utilizing heterogeneous patterns are proposed to prevent laser lock-on and restrict the maneuvering paths of aircraft. At the building scale, designing structures with asymmetrical, irregular, and multifaceted geometric forms, coupled with complex facades, is suggested to create visual ambiguity and disrupt target identification. Finally, at the scale of building elements and exterior envelopes, the study emphasizes using multi-layered and sacrificial roofs and walls to disrupt delayed-action munition fuses, applying cast-in-place reinforced concrete to repel blast waves, and incorporating reflective materials (such as flat glass and plexiglass panels) or uneven surfaces to deflect, attenuate, and scatter the returning laser signals to the sensors of guided missiles. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210885.html The present article assesses the role of crisis management and passive defense in promoting the sustainability of critical energy infrastructures. Due to their strategic nature and widespread impact on other economic and social sectors, energy infrastructures are always exposed to a variety of threats, including natural disasters, technical incidents, and intentional attacks (both cyber and physical). In this regard, crisis management as a set of processes for predicting, preparing for, responding to, and recovering from crises, and passive defense as a set of unarmed measures to protect lives, property, and the country's infrastructures against hostile threats, are considered to be the two main pillars in ensuring the continued performance and sustainability of these infrastructures. The present research method is descriptive-survey and the required data were collected through a questionnaire. The statistical population of the research includes experts and key managers in various sectors of critical energy infrastructure (including power plants, gas transmission lines, refineries, and oil facilities), who were selected as the sample size based on stratified sampling and the Cochran formula of 100 people. This research examines the key challenges in the effective implementation of crisis management and passive defense strategies in the energy sector and provides operational solutions to overcome them. The interrelationship and impact of these two approaches on increasing the sustainability of the energy supply chain are described. The key findings of this research show that integrating crisis management and passive defense approaches, while reducing vulnerability, can significantly increase the ability of critical infrastructure in the energy sector to face various crises and ensure the continuity of essential services. It is concluded that adopting comprehensive and integrated strategies, based on a careful assessment of threats and vulnerabilities, and the effective implementation of passive defense measures and crisis management plans, is essential to ensure sustainable security and resilience in the energy sector. https://pd.ihu.ac.ir/article_210886.html Freshwater desalination facilities, as critical water supply infrastructures in water-scarce regions, are considered strategic and sensitive centers from the perspective of civil defense. Their vulnerability can have far-reaching consequences in the fields of water security, environmental sustainability, and social stability. The current research aims to evaluate and explain the pattern of vulnerability of freshwater desalination facilities from a civil defense perspective using the Q method. This research is applied in terms of purpose and is a mixed qualitative-quantitative exploratory-confirmatory approach in terms of method. In the first step, by reviewing the theoretical foundations and the literature review, as well as the opinions of experts in the field of civil defense and water management, 200 statements were extracted as influential factors on vulnerability. In the next stage, using the Q technique, the statements were sorted within the participants' community, and the data was processed using SPSS software and exploratory factor analysis. The results of the factor analysis led to the identification of six dominant mental patterns in particular vulnerability dimensions, which can be explained through 139 cross-factors. Finally, the model derived from the research can be used as a decision-making framework for water managers and civil defense policymakers to prioritize vulnerability reduction actions and enhance the resilience of freshwater desalination facilities.